2590 — Vocabulary
10 questions — Aligned to EAP objectives — Martini Chapter 4
Q1MC
The root "histos" is the origin of the word histology. Based on this root, histology is defined as:
The study of cells and their organelles
The study of tissues
The study of organ systems
The study of disease processes in the body
Q2MC
The prefix "a-" in the term avascular means:
Around
Between
Without
Many
Q3FITB
The word root "lacus" means lake or pool. The small pockets in cartilage and bone matrix that house chondrocytes and osteocytes are called ___.
Q4MC
The root "phagein" appears in macrophage. Based on this root, macrophages are best described as:
Cells that produce collagen fibers and ground substance in connective tissue
Large cells that engulf and digest pathogens and debris
Cells that store fat as energy reserves
Cells that initiate the inflammatory response by releasing histamine
Q5MC
The root "krinein" means to separate or to secrete. The prefix "exo-" means outside. Therefore exocrine secretions are:
Hormones released into the bloodstream to act as chemical messengers
Secretions discharged onto the surface of an epithelium through a duct
Secretions that remain inside the cell for use in intracellular metabolism
Proteins released into the extracellular matrix of connective tissue
Q6SATA
Select ALL word roots that are correctly matched to their meaning.
Q7MC
The term "pseudostratified" contains the root "pseudes," meaning false. Pseudostratified epithelium:
Is truly stratified with multiple cell layers each contacting the basement membrane
Appears stratified because nuclei sit at different heights, but all cells contact the basement membrane
Contains false or abnormal cells indicating a pathological process
Is stratified only under conditions of mechanical stress
Q8MC
The root "meros" means part. "Holos" means entire. Based on these roots, which statement correctly distinguishes merocrine from holocrine secretion?
Merocrine releases PART of the secretory product while the cell remains intact; holocrine releases the ENTIRE cell as the secretion
Merocrine destroys the cell; holocrine keeps the cell intact
Both merocrine and holocrine describe the same secretion mechanism — they are synonyms
Merocrine is endocrine secretion; holocrine is exocrine secretion
Q9FITB
The root "chondros" means cartilage. The fibrous covering surrounding cartilage — containing an inner cellular layer and an outer fibrous layer — is called the ___.
Q10MC
The term "lamina propria" refers to the areolar connective tissue layer within a mucous membrane. The root "propria" means own or proper. The lamina propria is therefore:
A foreign connective tissue layer implanted during wound healing
The connective tissue layer that properly belongs to and supports a mucous membrane from beneath
The basement membrane between epithelium and connective tissue
The outer fibrous layer of the perichondrium
2591 — Four Tissue Types
7 questions — Aligned to EAP objectives — Martini Chapter 4
Q11MC
Connective tissue is described in the Martini textbook as the most diverse tissue in the body. Which set of examples correctly represents connective tissue?
Skin epithelium, intestinal lining, and lung alveoli
Bone, blood, fat, tendons, and cartilage
Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle
Neurons, neuroglia, and the spinal cord
Q12SATA
Select ALL four basic tissue types found in the human body.
Q13MC
Which tissue type covers exposed surfaces, lines internal passageways and chambers, and produces glandular secretions?
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Epithelial tissue
Neural tissue
Q14MC
The textbook states that tissues are collections of specialized cells and cell products that perform a specific but ___ range of functions.
Unlimited
Limited
Universal
Identical
Q15MC
According to the textbook, the study of tissues is called:
Cytology
Pathology
Histology
Physiology
Q16MC
Which tissue type is specialized to contract and produce active movement?
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Neural tissue
Q17FITB
Neural tissue is specialized for the conduction of electrical impulses from one region of the body to another. According to the textbook, ___ percent of neural tissue is concentrated in the brain and spinal cord.
2592 — Epithelial Cells
12 questions — Aligned to EAP objectives — Martini Chapter 4
Q18MC
Which characteristic of epithelial tissue distinguishes it from all other tissue types?
It contains the most diverse cell population of any tissue type
It is avascular — it lacks blood vessels and obtains nutrients by diffusion
It is the most abundant tissue by volume in the body
Its cells are widely separated by large amounts of extracellular matrix
Q19MC
Tight junctions between epithelial cells lining the digestive tract serve to:
Allow ions and small molecules to pass rapidly between adjacent cells
Prevent digestive enzymes, stomach acids, and waste products from passing between cells into underlying tissues
Anchor epithelial cells to the basement membrane
Allow the coordinated spread of contraction signals between cells
Q20SATA
Select ALL characteristics that correctly describe epithelial tissue as listed in the Martini textbook.
Q21MC
Gap junctions are held together by embedded membrane proteins called connexons. The PRIMARY function of gap junctions in cardiac and smooth muscle tissue is:
Preventing water and solutes from passing between adjacent cells
Anchoring cells firmly to resist mechanical stress
Allowing ions and small molecules to pass from cell to cell, coordinating contractions
Attaching epithelial cells to the protein fibers of the basement membrane
Q22MC
A patient suffers a severe burn destroying a large area of skin epithelium.
The MOST immediate threat from loss of the epithelial barrier is:
Loss of the ability to synthesize vitamin D in the affected area
Disruption of the blood supply to the burned dermis
Bacteria entering the underlying tissues through the disrupted barrier
Inability of fibroblasts to produce collagen for wound repair
Q23MC
The basement membrane between the epithelium and underlying connective tissue:
Contains a layer of living cells that secretes materials in both directions
Is a noncellular network of protein fibers that provides attachment and acts as a barrier to large molecules
Contains the blood vessels that supply nutrients to the avascular epithelium
Is identical in structure and function to the ground substance of connective tissue
Q24FITB
The unspecialized cells near the basement membrane that continuously divide to replace lost or damaged epithelial cells are called stem cells or ___ cells.
Q25MC
A cell with microvilli has at least how many times the surface area of a cell without them?
2 times
5 times
20 times
100 times
Q26SATA
Select ALL four essential functions of epithelial tissue as listed in the Martini textbook.
Q27MC
A typical cell in a ciliated epithelium of the respiratory tract has approximately how many cilia?
25
100
250
1000
Q28MC
Desmosomes are abundant between cells in the superficial skin layers. This explains why after a sunburn:
The skin turns red from increased blood flow through epithelial capillaries
The skin peels in sheets rather than as individual cells or powder
Tight junctions prevent bacteria from entering through sun-damaged skin
Gap junctions allow inflammatory signals to spread rapidly across the burned area
Q29MC
The apical surface of an epithelial cell is defined as:
The surface attached to the basement membrane
The free surface exposed to the environment or to an internal chamber or passageway
The lateral surface where cell junctions connect adjacent cells
The basal surface contacting the underlying connective tissue
2593 — Epithelial Types
15 questions — Aligned to EAP objectives — Martini Chapter 4
Q30MC
Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells all contacting the basement membrane. Simple epithelia are appropriate for regions where:
Mechanical stress is severe and protection is the primary need
Secretion or absorption occurs because thinness reduces diffusion time
Volume changes require repeated stretching and recoiling
Multiple protective cell layers are needed above the basement membrane
Q31MC
Stratified squamous epithelium is correctly located at which set of sites?
Alveoli of lungs, lining of blood vessels, and kidney tubule thin sections
Surface of skin, lining of mouth, tongue, esophagus, rectum, anus, and vagina
Lining of stomach, intestinal tract, and gallbladder
Nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi
Q32MC
Simple squamous epithelium lines the alveoli of the lungs. This is appropriate because:
Simple squamous cells secrete surfactant to reduce alveolar surface tension
Simple squamous is the only epithelium that can withstand repeated inflation
Simple squamous is extremely thin, minimizing the diffusion distance for gas exchange
Simple squamous cells have abundant microvilli that maximize gas absorption
Q33FITB
A stratified epithelium lining the ureters and urinary bladder that tolerates repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling is called ___ epithelium.
Q34MC
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium lines most of the nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi. Its primary function in the respiratory tract is:
Gas exchange between inhaled air and the blood in underlying capillaries
Providing the strongest protective barrier against pathogen invasion
Moving mucus-trapped irritants and particles toward the throat via coordinated ciliary beating
Secreting surfactant to prevent alveolar collapse during exhalation
Q35MC
Simple cuboidal epithelium provides limited protection and is found where secretion or absorption occurs. Which set of locations is correct?
Surface of skin and lining of mouth, esophagus, and vagina
Glands, ducts, portions of kidney tubules, and the thyroid gland
Lining of ventral body cavities and inner surfaces of blood vessels
Urinary bladder, ureters, and renal pelvis
Q36SATA
Select ALL locations where simple squamous epithelium is found according to the textbook.
Q37MC
In holocrine secretion, the entire gland cell becomes packed with secretions and then bursts apart and dies. Which glands use this mechanism?
Salivary glands that produce saliva for digestion
Mammary glands that produce milk for nursing
Sebaceous glands that produce an oily hair and skin coating
Sweat glands that produce perspiration for temperature regulation
Q38MC
Simple columnar epithelium lines the stomach and intestinal tract. This is functionally appropriate because:
Simple columnar provides the strongest physical protection from abrasion
Simple columnar provides some protection and is suited for both absorption and secretion
Simple columnar is the thinnest epithelium, minimizing diffusion distance
Simple columnar tolerates volume changes from stomach filling and emptying
Q39MC
Apocrine secretion involves the loss of cytoplasm along with the secretory product. Which example correctly illustrates apocrine secretion?
Salivary glands releasing saliva into the mouth through a duct
Mammary glands releasing the fatty component of milk and viscous underarm perspiration
Sebaceous glands releasing oily secretions when the gland cell bursts
Pancreatic cells secreting digestive enzymes via exocytosis
Q40MC
Serous glands produce:
Thick, slippery mucus formed by mucins mixed with water
A watery solution containing enzymes
An oily coating that lubricates hair and skin
Hormones released directly into the bloodstream
Q41FITB
Mucin proteins secreted by mucous cells mix with water to form ___, which lubricates surfaces and traps foreign particles and microorganisms.
Q42MC
Transitional epithelium is called "transitional" because:
It is found in a transitional zone between two different organ systems
Its appearance transitions between the unstretched (plump outermost cells) and stretched (flattened cells) states
The cells transition from cuboidal to squamous shape as they mature
It represents a transition between simple and stratified epithelial types
Q43MC
Which epithelial type would you expect to find lining an empty urinary bladder?
Simple squamous — thin and flat, reducing friction with urine
Simple columnar — for absorption of water from urine
Transitional epithelium — with plump cuboidal-appearing outermost cells when relaxed
Stratified squamous — providing protection from acidic urine
Q44SATA
Select ALL structures where simple columnar epithelium is found according to the Martini textbook.
2594 — Connective Tissue
18 questions — Aligned to EAP objectives — Martini Chapter 4
Q45MC
All connective tissues share three basic components. Which correctly lists all three?
Collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers only
Specialized cells, extracellular protein fibers, and ground substance
Fibroblasts, chondrocytes, and osteocytes
Blood vessels, sensory receptors, and stem cells
Q46MC
Ground substance in normal connective tissue proper is described in the Martini textbook as having a consistency similar to:
Water — thin and freely flowing
Gelatin — firm with a definite shape
Maple syrup — viscous, clear, and colorless
Concrete — rigid and non-deformable
Q47MC
A tissue sample shows cells with a large lipid droplet that squeezes the nucleus and other organelles to one side.
This cell is MOST likely a:
Fibroblast
Macrophage
Adipocyte (fat cell)
Mast cell
Q48SATA
Select ALL functions correctly attributed to connective tissue according to the Martini textbook.
Q49MC
Which statement correctly compares the three types of extracellular fibers in connective tissue?
Elastic fibers are the most common; collagen fibers return to original length after stretching
Collagen fibers are the most common (long, straight, unbranched); elastic fibers are branched, wavy, and return to original length after stretching
Reticular fibers are the strongest; collagen fibers are the least common
All three fiber types are produced by chondrocytes in the cartilage matrix
Q50MC
Areolar tissue is described as the least specialized connective tissue in adults. Which correctly describes areolar tissue?
Dominated by adipocytes with little visible matrix
Contains all cell and fiber types found in connective tissue proper, plus an extensive blood supply
Consists of closely packed parallel collagen fibers with minimal ground substance
Has a rigid calcified matrix that provides structural support
Q51FITB
Tendons are cords of ___ regular connective tissue that attach skeletal muscles to bones, with collagen fibers running parallel along the length of the tendon.
Q52MC
Dense irregular connective tissue forms organ capsules and gives the deep dermis its strength because:
Its parallel collagen fibers resist force in one specific direction very efficiently
Its interwoven collagen fiber meshwork resists stress applied from multiple directions
It contains the most diverse cell population of any connective tissue type
It is the most vascular connective tissue type, providing nutrients to surrounding structures
Q53MC
Mast cells release histamine and heparin after injury or infection. The direct effect of histamine on local blood vessels is:
Vasoconstriction — narrowing vessels to limit blood loss
Vasodilation and increased permeability — producing redness, heat, and swelling
Platelet activation — initiating the blood clotting cascade
Fibroblast stimulation — beginning collagen production for tissue repair
Q54SATA
Select ALL three types of cartilage described in the Martini textbook.
Q55MC
Hyaline cartilage is the most common type. Which locations correctly describe where hyaline cartilage is found?
External ear (auricle), epiglottis, and auditory canal
Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, and knee joint pads
Connecting rib tips to the sternum, covering joint bone surfaces, supporting larynx and trachea, and forming the nasal septum
Only in joint cavities as articular cartilage
Q56MC
Cartilage heals poorly after injury. The primary reason is:
Chondrocytes divide too rapidly and produce disorganized tissue
Cartilage matrix is too hard for repair cells to penetrate
Cartilage is avascular — no blood supply means poor delivery of repair cells and nutrients
Cartilage contains too little collagen to support scar formation
Q57FITB
The fluid connective tissue in which the watery ground substance is called plasma — and which contains red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets — is ___.
Q58MC
Osteocytes in bone obtain nutrients via:
Diffusion through the solid calcified matrix as chondrocytes do in cartilage
Cytoplasmic extensions running through canaliculi that connect to blood vessels
Absorption from the periosteum surrounding the outer surface of bone
Filtration of synovial fluid that fills the bone lacunae
Q59MC
Reticular tissue provides a supporting framework in which organs?
Heart, skeletal muscle, and brain white matter
Stomach lining, small intestine, and large intestine
Liver, spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow
Kidneys and adrenal glands exclusively
Q60SATA
Select ALL statements that are TRUE when comparing bone to cartilage.
Q61MC
Dense regular and dense irregular connective tissue both consist mostly of collagen fibers. The key difference is:
Dense regular contains elastic fibers; dense irregular contains collagen fibers only
Dense regular fibers are parallel for unidirectional force; dense irregular fibers form an interwoven meshwork for multidirectional stress
Dense regular is found only in organ capsules; dense irregular forms only tendons
Dense irregular is more vascular than dense regular
Q62MC
Fibrocartilage is described as extremely durable and tough because its matrix is dominated by densely interwoven collagen fibers. Which function is fibrocartilage BEST suited for?
Flexible support that tolerates distortion and returns to original shape
Providing a smooth friction-reducing surface over bone ends in joints
Resisting compression and preventing bone-to-bone contact at high-load sites
Conducting nutrients to surrounding tissues through diffusion
2595 — Tissue Membranes
8 questions — Aligned to EAP objectives — Martini Chapter 4
Q63MC
A tissue membrane is defined as:
A lipid bilayer that controls ion passage across a cell surface
A physical barrier consisting of an epithelium supported by connective tissue
An epithelial layer without underlying connective tissue support
A connective tissue layer without any epithelial component
Q64MC
Mucous membranes line cavities that:
Are completely enclosed and do not communicate with the external environment
Communicate with the exterior — digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts
Allow free movement between bones — the joint cavities
Surround and protect the major organs in the ventral body cavities
Q65SATA
Select ALL three serous membranes of the body and their correct locations.
Q66MC
The PRIMARY function of serous membranes is to:
Secrete mucus that protects and lubricates the digestive and respiratory tract linings
Produce synovial fluid to lubricate freely movable joints
Minimize friction between opposing parietal and visceral surfaces when organs move or change shape
Form a waterproof barrier covering and protecting the body surface
Q67MC
The cutaneous membrane differs from serous and mucous membranes in three ways. Which description is correct?
Thin, moist, and lines internal body cavities not open to the exterior
Thick, relatively waterproof, and usually dry
Composed only of epithelial tissue without connective tissue support
Lines cavities communicating with the exterior and is kept constantly moist
Q68MC
Synovial membranes are unique among the four tissue membranes because they:
Have a complete, intact epithelial layer like all other tissue membranes
Line cavities that communicate with the external environment
Consist primarily of areolar connective tissue with only an incomplete epithelial layer
Are found in the ventral body cavities surrounding the lungs and heart
Q69FITB
The areolar connective tissue layer that supports a mucous membrane from beneath is specifically called the ___ ___ (two words).
Q70MC
Inflammation of the peritoneum is called peritonitis. Based on your knowledge of serous membranes, peritonitis affects:
The pleural cavities surrounding the lungs
The pericardial cavity surrounding the heart
The abdominal cavity and the surfaces of abdominal organs
The synovial lining of major joints
2596 — Muscle Tissue
11 questions — Aligned to EAP objectives — Martini Chapter 4
Q71MC
Which muscle tissue type is correctly classified as "striated voluntary muscle"?
Cardiac muscle — striated and controlled by pacemaker cells
Smooth muscle — nonstriated and involuntary
Skeletal muscle — striated and requires nerve stimulation for contraction
Both cardiac and skeletal — both are striated
Q72MC
Intercalated discs are a unique structural feature of cardiac muscle. They contain:
Microtubule triplets in 9+0 arrangement organizing the cardiac cytoskeleton
Gap junctions AND desmosomes — conducting the contraction signal and holding cells together mechanically
Actin and myosin organized in repeating groups producing striations
Pacemaker cells that generate the regular rate of cardiac contraction
Q73MC
Smooth muscle cells lack striations because:
They do not contain actin or myosin filaments
Their actin and myosin filaments are scattered throughout the cytoplasm rather than organized in repeating groups
They contain intercalated discs that disrupt the regular filament organization
They are too small to develop the organized filament arrays seen in other muscle types
Q74SATA
Select ALL correct statements about skeletal muscle tissue.
Q75MC
Cardiac muscle cells do not rely on nerve activity to initiate contraction. The regular rate of contraction is established by:
Gap junctions between cardiac cells that spontaneously depolarize
Intercalated discs that generate pacemaker action potentials
Specialized pacemaker cells that generate a regular electrical rhythm
Fibroblasts in cardiac connective tissue that regulate contraction rate
Q76MC
A drug is administered that completely blocks all gap junctions throughout the heart.
The MOST immediate consequence would be:
Cardiac cells would begin contracting voluntarily in response to nerve signals
The coordinated spread of the electrical contraction signal across the heart would be disrupted
Cardiac cells would detach from each other because gap junctions provide mechanical attachment
Pacemaker cells would stop generating their regular electrical rhythm
Q77MC
Which muscle tissue type is found in the walls of blood vessels, around hollow organs such as the urinary bladder, and in layers around multiple organ system tracts?
Skeletal muscle
Cardiac muscle
Smooth muscle
Both skeletal and cardiac muscle
Q78FITB
The contraction mechanism is the same in all three muscle types — it involves interaction between filaments of myosin and ___ proteins arranged within the cell.
Q79MC
Which muscle tissue type can divide and therefore regenerates after injury?
Skeletal muscle — muscle fibers divide after injury
Cardiac muscle — has extensive regenerative capacity
Smooth muscle — cells can divide and smooth muscle tissue can regenerate
Both skeletal and cardiac muscle have equal regenerative capacity
Q80MC
How long can a single skeletal muscle fiber be?
Up to 1 millimeter
Up to 1 centimeter
Up to 10 centimeters
Up to 0.3 meters (about 1 foot)
Q81SATA
Select ALL differences between cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle.
2597 — Neural Tissue
7 questions — Aligned to EAP objectives — Martini Chapter 4
Q82MC
The two basic cell types in neural tissue are:
Axons and dendrites
Neurons and neuroglia
Sensory neurons and motor neurons
Nerve fibers and cell bodies
Q83MC
A typical neuron has three main structural parts. Which option correctly lists all three with their functions?
Nucleus (stores DNA), cytoplasm (metabolic activity), plasma membrane (selective barrier)
Cell body (nucleus, metabolic center), dendrites (receive information), axon (carries information to other cells)
Axon (receives information), cell body (processes signals), dendrites (sends information)
Cell body (houses neuroglia), dendrites (supply nutrients), axon (provides immune defense)
Q84MC
Most neurons cannot divide under normal circumstances. This is clinically significant because:
Non-dividing neurons use less energy, allowing more ATP for impulse conduction
Neurons lost to injury or disease cannot be replaced, resulting in permanent functional deficits
Non-dividing neurons maintain stable neural circuits preventing unwanted new connections
Neurons that cannot divide will not form tumors, which protects the brain
Q85FITB
Because axons tend to be very long and slender, they are also referred to as nerve ___.
Q86SATA
Select ALL four functions of neuroglia as stated in the Martini textbook.
Q87MC
Conscious and unconscious thought processes depend on communication among neurons in the brain. Neurons communicate through:
Release of intracellular enzymes that diffuse between neighboring cells
Electrical events that affect their plasma membranes
Direct cytoplasmic connections that allow organelles to transfer between cells
Release of lysosomal contents into the extracellular space
Q88MC
The two processes that restore homeostasis after tissue injury are:
Regeneration and fibrosis
Inflammation and regeneration
Inflammation and apoptosis
Vasodilation and vasoconstriction
2598 — Tissue Response
7 questions — Aligned to EAP objectives — Martini Chapter 4
Q89MC
Which connective tissue cells INITIATE the inflammatory response by releasing histamine and heparin?
Fibroblasts
Macrophages
Mast cells
White blood cells
Q90SATA
Select ALL four classic signs of inflammation described in the Martini textbook.
Q91MC
The textbook states that epithelia, connective tissues (except cartilage), and smooth muscle usually regenerate well. Which tissue regenerates MOST POORLY?
Simple columnar epithelium of the intestinal lining
Areolar connective tissue
Cardiac muscle — most damaged cells are replaced by fibrous connective tissue
Smooth muscle in blood vessel walls
Q92MC
Fibrosis is defined as:
The controlled, programmed death of cells that is normal and necessary
The permanent replacement of normal tissue by dense fibrous connective tissue
The inflammatory process that isolates and cleans up a damaged area
The regeneration of new cells from stem cells after injury
Q93FITB
During regeneration, fibroblasts produce a dense collagen network at the repair site called ___ tissue.
Q94MC
The two phases of tissue repair (inflammation and regeneration) overlap. This means:
Inflammation must be completely finished before regeneration can begin
Repair begins while cleanup is still ongoing — isolation of the damaged area establishes a framework guiding reconstruction
Regeneration occurs first in epithelial tissue and later in connective tissue
Inflammation occurs in the first hour and regeneration begins exactly 24 hours later
Q95MC
During the inflammatory response, increased vascular permeability allows plasma to diffuse from blood vessels into the tissue. This directly causes:
Redness from increased blood flow into the capillary bed
Swelling in the injured area
Pain from direct chemical stimulation of nerve endings
Heat from metabolic activity of arriving phagocytic cells
2599 — Aging & Tissues
5 questions — Aligned to EAP objectives — Martini Chapter 4
Q96MC
According to the Martini textbook, how does epithelial tissue change with age?
Epithelial cells divide more rapidly, producing thicker protective layers
Epithelia get thinner, reducing protective capacity
Stem cell numbers increase with age, improving epithelial renewal rates
Basement membranes thicken substantially, improving barrier function
Q97MC
Osteoporosis — the age-related reduction in bone strength particularly in women — is described in the textbook as being caused by:
Decreased collagen synthesis and increased osteoclast activity from aging alone
Inactivity, low dietary calcium intake, and reduction in circulating estrogens
Loss of cartilage in joints that transfers excess mechanical stress to bone
Decreased production of growth hormone after the end of puberty
Q98MC
According to the Martini textbook, approximately what percentage of all Americans develop cancer at some point in their lives?
5 percent
15 percent
25 percent
50 percent
Q99SATA
Select ALL statements about aging and tissues that are accurate according to the Martini textbook.
Q100MC
The Martini textbook states that 40 percent of all cancers are caused by:
Radiation exposure from environmental sources
High dietary fat intake and obesity
Cigarette smoke
Inherited genetic mutations
SOMAPL14 Practice Test — Complete
Tissue Level of Organization — Objectives 2590–2599
-- correct-- incorrect-- total
SOMAPL14 — Exam Prep
The Tissue Level of Organization
Objectives 2590–2599 — Martini, Ober, Bartholomew — Chapter 4
15 Exam Questions10 ObjectivesVocabulary • Epithelial • Connective • Muscle • Neural
▼
Know these word components — they appear in every tissue-level question.
a- without — avascular (no blood vessels)
apo- from — apocrine (secretion shed from the cell)
chondros cartilage — perichondrium (around the cartilage)
dendron tree — dendrites (branching projections of neurons)
desmos ligament/bond — desmosome (a binding body that ties cells)
glia glue — neuroglia (glue cells that support neurons)
histos tissue — histology (study of tissues)
holos entire — holocrine (entire cell released as secretion)
hyalos glass — hyaline cartilage (glassy-clear matrix)
inter- between — interstitial (between cells/tissues)
krinein to separate/secrete — exocrine (secreted outward)
lacus lake/pool — lacunae (small pockets housing chondrocytes/osteocytes)
meros part — merocrine (partial secretion by exocytosis)
neuro nerve — neuron (nerve cell)
os bone — osseous tissue (bone tissue)
peri- around — perichondrium / periosteum
phagein to eat — macrophage (big eater cell)
pleura rib — pleural membrane (membrane around the lungs)
pseudes false — pseudostratified (appears layered but is not)
squama plate or scale — squamous (flat, scale-like cells)
vas vessel — vascular (having blood vessels)
EXAM TRAP: Avascular = NO blood vessels. Epithelial tissue is avascular. Connective tissue is vascular. This distinction is tested.
▼
All body structures are built from combinations of exactly four tissue types. Know what each does and where it is found.
Epithelial Tissue
Covers exposed surfaces. Lines internal passageways and chambers. Produces glandular secretions. Forms selective barriers between the body and external environment.
Covers exposed surfaces. Lines internal passageways and chambers. Produces glandular secretions. Forms selective barriers between the body and external environment.
Connective Tissue
Fills internal spaces. Provides structural support. Stores energy. Defends the body. Most diverse tissue — includes bone, blood, fat, tendons, cartilage.
Fills internal spaces. Provides structural support. Stores energy. Defends the body. Most diverse tissue — includes bone, blood, fat, tendons, cartilage.
Muscle Tissue
Contracts to produce active movement. Three types: skeletal (voluntary), cardiac (involuntary), smooth (involuntary). Contraction involves interaction between actin and myosin filaments.
Contracts to produce active movement. Three types: skeletal (voluntary), cardiac (involuntary), smooth (involuntary). Contraction involves interaction between actin and myosin filaments.
Neural Tissue
Conducts electrical impulses. Carries information. 98% concentrated in brain and spinal cord. Contains neurons (conductors) and neuroglia (support cells).
Conducts electrical impulses. Carries information. 98% concentrated in brain and spinal cord. Contains neurons (conductors) and neuroglia (support cells).
Definition — Tissue: A collection of specialized cells and cell products that perform a specific but limited range of functions.
Histology (histos = tissue, -logy = study of): The scientific study of tissues.
NUANCE: Tissues do not exist in isolation — they always combine to form organs. Every organ contains multiple tissue types working together.
▼
Epithelial tissue includes epithelia (cell layers covering surfaces) and glands (secreting cells derived from epithelia).
Five Key Characteristics
1. Closely bound cells. Epithelial cells are tightly connected. In other tissue types, cells are often separated by large amounts of extracellular material.
2. Free (apical) surface. One surface is exposed to the external environment or to an internal chamber or passageway.
3. Basement membrane attachment. The basal surface attaches to underlying connective tissue by a noncellular basement membrane made of protein fibers.
4. Avascular. No blood vessels within the epithelium itself. Nutrients reach epithelial cells by diffusion from underlying connective tissue or from across the exposed surface.
5. Continual renewal. Stem cells (germinative cells) in the deepest layer divide continuously to replace lost or damaged cells.
Four Essential Functions
1. Physical protection. Protects surfaces from abrasion, dehydration, and chemical/biological agents.
2. Control permeability. All substances that enter or leave the body must cross an epithelium.
3. Sensation. Specialized epithelial cells detect environmental changes and relay information to the nervous system.
4. Specialized secretions. Exocrine secretions go onto the epithelial surface via ducts. Endocrine secretions (hormones) release into tissue fluid and blood — no duct.
Cell Junctions
Tight junction: Interlocking membrane proteins fuse adjacent plasma membranes. An adhesion belt connected to actin filaments lies below. Prevents passage of water and solutes between cells. Common in digestive tract lining — keeps enzymes and acids from damaging underlying tissues.
Gap junction: Connexon proteins form a narrow passageway allowing small molecules and ions to pass directly from cell to cell. Essential in cardiac and smooth muscle for coordinating contractions.
Desmosome: CAMs and proteoglycans lock membranes together at dense areas linked to intermediate filaments. Spot desmosomes = small discs. Abundant in skin — why skin peels in sheets after a sunburn rather than as individual cells.
Hemidesmosome: Half a spot desmosome. Attaches the cell to the basement membrane (not to another cell).
Surface Specializations
Microvilli: Actin-supported finger-like projections. NON-motile. Increase surface area 20× for absorption/secretion (intestine, kidney tubules).
Cilia: 9+2 microtubule doublets. ATP-powered (dynein). Motile — ~250 per cell. Move materials across the epithelial surface (respiratory tract sweeps mucus toward throat).
EXAM TRAP — Microvilli vs Cilia: Microvilli = actin core, NON-motile, increase surface area. Cilia = 9+2 microtubule doublets, MOTILE, move fluid/material. Do not confuse.
Figure 4-2 — Cell Junctions — tight junctions, gap junctions, desmosomes, and hemidesmosomes
▼
Epithelia are classified by two features: number of layers (simple or stratified) and shape of surface cells (squamous, cuboidal, or columnar).
Layering
Simple: Single layer. All cells contact basement membrane. Thin — found only in protected internal locations. Used where secretion or absorption occurs (thinness reduces diffusion time).
Stratified: Multiple layers above the basement membrane. Greater protection. Found where mechanical or chemical stress is high (skin, mouth, anus).
Cell Shapes
Squamous
Thin and flat. Nucleus in the thickest portion. Viewed from surface: look like fried eggs side by side. Squama = plate or scale.
Thin and flat. Nucleus in the thickest portion. Viewed from surface: look like fried eggs side by side. Squama = plate or scale.
Cuboidal
Hexagonal box-like; appear square in cross-section. Nucleus near center. Larger cells = more room for secretory/absorptive organelles.
Hexagonal box-like; appear square in cross-section. Nucleus near center. Larger cells = more room for secretory/absorptive organelles.
Columnar
Hexagonal but taller and slender; appear rectangular in cross-section. Nuclei crowded near the basement membrane.
Hexagonal but taller and slender; appear rectangular in cross-section. Nuclei crowded near the basement membrane.
Simple Epithelia
Simple Squamous: Protected regions where absorption occurs or a slippery surface reduces friction. Locations: alveoli (lung air sacs), lining of ventral body cavities, lining of blood vessels and heart (endothelium), thin sections of kidney tubules, inner lining of cornea. Functions: reduces friction, controls permeability, performs absorption and secretion.
Simple Cuboidal: Secretion or absorption. Locations: glands, ducts, portions of kidney tubules, thyroid gland. Functions: limited protection, secretion, absorption.
Simple Columnar: Some protection plus absorption/secretion. Locations: stomach, intestinal tract, gallbladder, uterine tubes, collecting ducts of kidneys. Often has microvilli. Functions: protection, secretion, absorption.
Stratified Epithelia
Stratified Squamous: Where mechanical stresses are severe. Locations: skin surface; lining of mouth, tongue, esophagus, rectum, anus, vagina. Function: physical protection against abrasion, pathogens, and chemical attack.
Stratified Cuboidal: Relatively rare. Ducts of sweat glands and larger ducts of mammary glands.
Stratified Columnar: Relatively rare. Pharynx, epiglottis, anus, urethra, a few large excretory ducts.
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar: Appears stratified but is NOT — all cells contact the basement membrane. Nuclei at different heights create the appearance of layers. Typically possesses cilia. Locations: nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi, portions of male reproductive tract. Functions: protection, secretion, moves mucus with cilia.
Transitional: Stratified epithelium tolerating repeated stretch/recoil cycles. Changes appearance between empty (plump cuboidal outermost cells) and full (flattened, squamous-like) states. Locations: ureters, urinary bladder. Function: permits expansion and recoil after stretching.
Glandular Secretion Mechanisms
Merocrine (most common): Product released from secretory vesicles by exocytosis. Cell remains intact. Examples: saliva, mucus, perspiration, milk.
Apocrine: Outermost cytoplasm packed with secretory vesicles is shed along with the product. Cell repairs and continues. Examples: milk production in mammary glands, viscous underarm perspiration.
Holocrine: Entire cell becomes packed with secretions, then bursts apart and dies. Stem cells replace lost cells continuously. Example: sebaceous glands (skin oil/hair coating). Only mechanism that destroys the cell.
Secretion types: Serous = watery solution containing enzymes. Mucous = thick, slippery mucus. Mixed = both serous and mucous cells.
EXAM TRAP: Merocrine = exocytosis, cell intact. Apocrine = cytoplasm shed, cell repairs. Holocrine = entire cell destroyed. Sebaceous glands = holocrine. Saliva = merocrine.
Figure 4-4 — Simple Epithelia — squamous, cuboidal, and columnar with locations and functions
Figure 4-5 — Stratified Epithelia — stratified squamous, pseudostratified ciliated columnar, and transitional
Figure 4-6 — Mechanisms of Glandular Secretion — merocrine, apocrine, and holocrine
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Connective tissue is the most diverse tissue in the body. Never exposed to the outside environment. Usually well-vascularized.
Three Basic Components of ALL Connective Tissues
1. Specialized cells (vary by type: fibroblasts, chondrocytes, osteocytes, adipocytes, etc.)
2. Extracellular protein fibers: Collagen (long, straight, unbranched — strongest, most common). Elastic (contain elastin, branched, wavy — return to original length after stretching). Reticular (same protein as collagen but thinner, least common — form interwoven frameworks in organs).
3. Ground substance: Fluid filling spaces between cells and fibers. Normal connective tissue proper = clear, colorless, consistency of maple syrup. Dense consistency slows bacterial movement, making them easier for phagocytes to catch. Fibers + ground substance = the matrix.
Four Functions of Connective Tissue
1. Support and protection — structural framework, protects delicate organs.
2. Transportation of materials — fluid connective tissues move dissolved materials.
3. Storage of energy reserves — fats stored in adipocytes.
4. Defense — immune cells, antibody production.
Connective Tissue Proper — Cell Types
Fibroblasts: Most abundant. Permanent residents. Produce fibers and ground substance. Fibrocytes = differentiate from fibroblasts, maintain fibers.
Macrophages: Phagocytize damaged cells and pathogens. Release chemicals mobilizing the immune system. Fixed macrophages remain in tissue; free macrophages migrate to infection sites.
Adipocytes (fat cells): Permanent residents. Large lipid droplet squeezes nucleus and organelles to one side.
Mast cells: Near blood vessels. Release histamine and heparin after injury/infection — dilate blood vessels, increase permeability, begin defensive response.
White blood cells and stem cells: Move through connective tissue proper; numbers increase markedly after injury.
Loose Connective Tissues
Areolar: Least specialized. All cell and fiber types, extensive blood supply. Forms layer separating skin from deeper structures. Provides padding and elastic movement. Location: beneath dermis, around vessels, nerves, between muscles.
Adipose: Dominated by adipocytes. Padding, shock absorption, insulation, energy storage. Location: beneath skin at flanks/buttocks/breasts; behind eyes; around kidneys.
Reticular: Reticular fibers form 3D network. Stabilizes cells in lymph nodes, bone marrow, spleen, liver.
Dense Connective Tissues
Dense regular: Collagen fibers parallel, tightly packed, aligned with direction of force. Forms tendons (muscle to bone) and ligaments (bone to bone). Ligaments also contain elastic fibers.
Dense irregular: Collagen fibers in interwoven meshwork. Resists stress from multiple directions. Forms organ capsules, covers bone and cartilage, gives skin its strength (deep dermis).
Fluid Connective Tissues
Blood: Cells in a fluid matrix (plasma). RBCs (~half the volume) transport oxygen. WBCs = immune defense. Platelets = clotting. Proteins in plasma do NOT form large insoluble fibers under normal conditions.
Lymph: Forms as interstitial fluid enters lymphatic vessels. Returned to cardiovascular system. Immune cells monitor lymph for signs of injury and infection.
Supporting Connective Tissues
Cartilage: Firm gel matrix with embedded fibers. Chondrocytes live in lacunae. AVASCULAR — nutrients reach chondrocytes by diffusion through matrix. Covered by perichondrium. Repairs POORLY.
Hyaline cartilage: Most common. Closely packed collagen fibers. Locations: rib tips to sternum, joint surfaces, larynx/trachea/bronchi, nasal septum. Stiff but flexible support; reduces friction.
Elastic cartilage: Numerous elastic fibers. Extremely resilient — returns to shape after distortion. Locations: external ear (auricle), epiglottis, auditory canal.
Fibrocartilage: Densely interwoven collagen fibers. Extremely tough. Locations: intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, knee joint pads. Resists compression; prevents bone-to-bone contact. Heals POORLY.
Bone (osseous tissue): Matrix = calcium compounds + collagen fibers = strong AND resistant to shattering. Osteocytes in lacunae. VASCULAR — nutrients via canaliculi. Covered by periosteum. Repairs WELL.
EXAM TRAP — Cartilage vs Bone: Cartilage = avascular, perichondrium, chondrocytes, repairs poorly. Bone = vascular, periosteum, osteocytes, repairs well. Both have cells in lacunae. Vascularity is the key difference.
MARFAN SYNDROME: Abnormally weak fibrillin (carbohydrate-protein complex essential to connective tissue strength). Tall stature with abnormally long limbs. Most dangerous: weakened aorta wall can rupture — sudden, fatal blood loss.
Figure 4-7 — Major Types of Connective Tissue — classification overview
Figure 4-9 — Loose Connective Tissues — areolar, adipose, and reticular tissue
Figure 4-10 — Dense Connective Tissues — dense regular (tendon) and dense irregular (deep dermis)
Figure 4-11 — Types of Cartilage — hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage
Figure 4-12 — Bone — osteons, osteocytes in lacunae, canaliculi, and periosteum
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A tissue membrane is a physical barrier lining or covering body surfaces. Each consists of an epithelium supported by connective tissue. Exactly four types.
Mucous Membranes (Mucosae)
Line cavities that COMMUNICATE WITH THE EXTERIOR — digestive, respiratory, reproductive, urinary tracts. Always moist. Areolar tissue portion = lamina propria. Epithelial type varies by location.
Line cavities that COMMUNICATE WITH THE EXTERIOR — digestive, respiratory, reproductive, urinary tracts. Always moist. Areolar tissue portion = lamina propria. Epithelial type varies by location.
Serous Membranes
Line internal cavities that do NOT communicate with the exterior. Simple squamous epithelium on areolar tissue. Three: Pleura (lungs), Peritoneum (abdomen), Pericardium (heart). Parietal portion lines cavity; visceral portion covers organ surfaces. Primary function: MINIMIZE FRICTION when organs move. Watery serous fluid reduces friction.
Line internal cavities that do NOT communicate with the exterior. Simple squamous epithelium on areolar tissue. Three: Pleura (lungs), Peritoneum (abdomen), Pericardium (heart). Parietal portion lines cavity; visceral portion covers organ surfaces. Primary function: MINIMIZE FRICTION when organs move. Watery serous fluid reduces friction.
Cutaneous Membrane (Skin)
Covers the ENTIRE BODY surface. Stratified squamous epithelium + areolar tissue + underlying dense irregular connective tissue. Unlike others: THICK, WATERPROOF, DRY.
Covers the ENTIRE BODY surface. Stratified squamous epithelium + areolar tissue + underlying dense irregular connective tissue. Unlike others: THICK, WATERPROOF, DRY.
Synovial Membranes
Line freely movable joint cavities. Unique: consists primarily of AREOLAR TISSUE with only an incomplete epithelial layer. Produces viscous synovial fluid that lubricates joints and permits smooth movement. Bony surfaces are covered with hyaline cartilage — do NOT directly contact each other.
Line freely movable joint cavities. Unique: consists primarily of AREOLAR TISSUE with only an incomplete epithelial layer. Produces viscous synovial fluid that lubricates joints and permits smooth movement. Bony surfaces are covered with hyaline cartilage — do NOT directly contact each other.
EXAM TRAP: Mucous membranes line cavities that OPEN to the outside. Serous membranes line cavities that are CLOSED (ventral body cavities). Synovial membranes do NOT have a complete epithelial layer — unique among the four types.
Figure 4-13 — Tissue Membranes — mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial
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All three muscle types use actin-myosin interaction for contraction. Organization, location, and control differ.
| Feature | Skeletal | Cardiac | Smooth |
|---|---|---|---|
| Classification | Striated voluntary | Striated involuntary | Nonstriated involuntary |
| Cell shape | Long, cylindrical | Short, branched | Short, spindle-shaped |
| Nuclei per cell | Many (multinucleate) | Usually 1 | 1 (central) |
| Striations | Yes | Yes | No |
| Voluntary control | Yes — requires nerve stimulation | No — pacemaker cells set rate | No — autonomous or neural |
| Can cells divide? | No (stem cells do) | Very limited | Yes |
| Special feature | Up to 0.3m long; called muscle fibers | Intercalated discs (gap junctions + desmosomes) | No striations; scattered actin/myosin |
| Location | Skeletal muscles | Heart only | Blood vessel walls, hollow organs, tracts |
EXAM TRAP — Cardiac Muscle: Cardiac IS striated (like skeletal) but is INVOLUNTARY (like smooth). It is the only tissue that is both striated AND involuntary. Intercalated discs are unique to cardiac muscle — they contain gap junctions AND desmosomes and allow the contraction signal to spread across the entire heart.
Figure 4-14 — Muscle Tissue — skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle characteristics
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Specialized for conduction of electrical impulses from one region to another. 98% concentrated in brain and spinal cord.
Neurons
Transmit information as electrical impulses. Longest cells in the body — up to 1 meter (39 inches) long. CANNOT divide under normal circumstances — very limited self-repair.
Three parts:
1. Cell body — large nucleus, metabolic center
2. Dendrites — branching projections that RECEIVE information (dendron = tree)
3. Axon — single long projection that CARRIES information to other cells; also called nerve fibers. Ends at axon terminals.
Transmit information as electrical impulses. Longest cells in the body — up to 1 meter (39 inches) long. CANNOT divide under normal circumstances — very limited self-repair.
Three parts:
1. Cell body — large nucleus, metabolic center
2. Dendrites — branching projections that RECEIVE information (dendron = tree)
3. Axon — single long projection that CARRIES information to other cells; also called nerve fibers. Ends at axon terminals.
Neuroglia (Supporting Cells)
Glia = glue. Several kinds of supporting cells.
Four functions:
1. Physical support for neural tissue
2. Maintain chemical composition of neural tissue fluids
3. Supply nutrients to neurons
4. Defend the tissue from infection
Neuroglia CAN divide (unlike neurons).
Glia = glue. Several kinds of supporting cells.
Four functions:
1. Physical support for neural tissue
2. Maintain chemical composition of neural tissue fluids
3. Supply nutrients to neurons
4. Defend the tissue from infection
Neuroglia CAN divide (unlike neurons).
EXAM TRAP — Dendrites vs Axon: Dendrites RECEIVE information (many, branched). Axon CARRIES/SENDS information (one per neuron, long, slender). Direction: dendrites → cell body → axon → axon terminals → next cell.
REPAIR: Most neurons CANNOT divide. This is why spinal cord injuries and strokes cause permanent deficits. Neuroglia CAN divide. This difference is clinically significant.
Figure 4-15 — Neural Tissue — neuron structure with cell body, dendrites, and axon
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Any injury affects several tissue types simultaneously. Homeostasis is restored through two overlapping processes.
Phase 1 — Inflammation
Trigger: Impact, abrasion, chemical irritation, infection, or extreme temperatures stimulate mast cells in connective tissue.
Mast cell release: Histamine and heparin cause local blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable.
Four signs/symptoms: Redness (increased blood flow) | Heat (increased blood flow) | Swelling (plasma diffuses out of permeable vessels) | Pain (mast cell chemicals stimulate sensory nerve endings)
Benefit: Increased delivery of nutrients, oxygen, phagocytic WBCs, and clotting proteins. Speeds removal of waste and toxins. Over hours to days, the response eliminates the inflammatory stimulus.
Phase 2 — Regeneration
Fibroblasts produce a dense collagen network — scar tissue (fibrous tissue). Over time, scar tissue is remodeled and gradually assumes a more normal appearance. The two phases OVERLAP.
Regenerates WELL
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue (except cartilage)
Smooth muscle tissue
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue (except cartilage)
Smooth muscle tissue
Regenerates POORLY
Cardiac muscle — mostly replaced by fibrous CT (fibrosis)
Skeletal muscle — limited (relies on stem cells)
Neural tissue — most neurons cannot divide
Cartilage — avascular, heals very slowly
Cardiac muscle — mostly replaced by fibrous CT (fibrosis)
Skeletal muscle — limited (relies on stem cells)
Neural tissue — most neurons cannot divide
Cartilage — avascular, heals very slowly
Fibrosis: Permanent replacement of normal tissue by fibrous connective tissue. Occurs in heart attacks, certain diseases, and aging. Results in permanent loss of normal function in the affected area.
HIGH YIELD: Skin (epithelium + connective tissue) regenerates rapidly. Heart: connective tissue repairs well but most damaged cardiac muscle cells are replaced only by fibrous connective tissue — permanent loss of contractile function.
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Two major effects: decreasing ability to repair tissue damage, and increasing cancer rates.
General changes: Repair and maintenance slow down. Energy consumption declines. Reflects hormonal alterations and lifestyle changes.
Epithelia: Get thinner with age.
Connective tissues: Become more fragile. More bruising. Bones become brittle — joint pain and fractures common in elderly.
Non-replaceable tissues: Cardiac muscle fibers and neurons cannot be replaced. Cumulative losses from minor damage contribute to major health problems — cardiovascular disease or deterioration of mental function.
Cartilage changes: Chondrocytes produce a slightly different matrix compound — results in thinner, less resilient cartilage.
Osteoporosis: Reduction in bone strength in women. Caused by inactivity, low dietary calcium, and reduced estrogens. Exercise + calcium supplements + medication can maintain normal bone structure for many years.
Aging and Cancer
Cancer rates increase with age. ~25% of all Americans develop cancer.
70–80% of cancer cases result from chemical exposure, environmental factors, or both. 40% of cancers are caused by cigarette smoke.
Over 500,000 die of cancer annually in the US — second only to heart disease.
ADIPOSE NOTE: Adipocytes deflate but are NOT killed during weight loss. In adults, adipocytes cannot divide, but excess circulating lipids can stimulate connective tissue stem cells to differentiate into new fat cells. Liposuction is only a temporary solution because stem cells can regenerate adipose tissue.
EXAM SUMMARY: Epithelia get thinner. Connective tissues become fragile (bones brittle, cartilage less resilient). Cardiac and neural tissue losses accumulate permanently. Cancer rates rise with age due primarily to chemical exposure and environmental factors.